Viewing Renaissance Art

Chapter 1 notes written and posted 4.12.07 - Art Class and Wealth

Chapter 2 notes written and posted 5.1.08 - Florentine art and the public good

Chapter 6 notes written and posted 7.1.08 - Art and death

Week 15, Locating Renaissance Art, Chapter 7, Bramante and the sources of the Roman High Renaissance

Introduction

Carol Richardson introduces us to the architect Donato Bramante (1443/4 - 1514). Working in Rome for Pope Julius II who also employed Michelangelo for the Sistine chapel, Bramante's project was the rebuilding of St. Peter's Bascilica, one of the most controversial and disputed projects of the time. Julius II tended to leave his artists to innovate, which lead to ambitious projects which were rarely finished in the Pope's lifetime. The Popes saw themselves as successors of both St. Peter and the Roman Emperors, but also saw themselves as transcending the past. With the project commissioned Julius II believed it was time for a new age in Rome.

Bramante and the sources of the Roman High Renaissance

Tim Benton commences this chapter quoting Sebastiano Serlio (1475-1554) in his book on antiquities in 1540 in which he states that Bramante 'brought back to life the fine architecture which from the ancients to that time had lain buried' (CB2 p251). He laid out his plan for the chapter to include local architectural practice, printed treatises, the significance of the court of Urbino, and St Peter's in Rome.

1. Order and ornament

In this section explanation is given of the way in which architecture emerged in two ways. the first very much in the tradition of Filippo Brunelleschi (1377-1446) was based on the art of arithmetic and geometry as the cornerstones for design, in which 'space and volume are clearly delimited and decoration is reduced to the forms associated with the orders used (Corinthian, Ionic and Doric)' (CB2p252). In the second there is less geometry, less certainty and clarity but instead illusion, complexity and a richness of decoration. Alberti in his treatise On the Art of Building in Ten Books (1450-72) defines the first as 'primary beauty' to do with basic volumes and forms, and the second 'auxilary beauty' derived from ornament. Bramante's early work can be compared to the second his late work to the first.

2. The court of Urbino

Duke Federigo de Montefeltro's court at Urbino was a centre at which numerous and artists and architects spent time. Within the court was a culture that promoted scholarship, theoretical speculation, geometry, perspective, and a pure and austere style of painting and architecture. Amongst those who spent time in Urbino was Alberti, Piero della Francesca and Raphael. Piero was a skilled painter and distinguished mathematician, and his work had a profound influence as can be seen from his painting the Sacre Conversazione 1472-4 oil and tempera on panel (CB2 P7.7 p258). Luca Pacioli the author of On Divine Proportion (1497) was another who spent time at Urbino and who admired the work of Piero della Francesco and derived much from his manuscripts on regular solids. Within this court with its numerous visitors was the opportunity for a wide exchange of ideas and knowledge. Highlighted was the importance of travel that many made between different centres such as Naples, Mantua, Pesaro, Rome and Urbino to gather knowledge of antique sources and new ideas. Federigo 'was also significant in lending prestige to the art of architecture as distinguished from the craft of masons or builders' (CB2 p259). He distinguishes between the invention based on arithmetic and geometry and the practical dealing with construction. The patron with advises was the key figure in the first, the craftsman in the second, and the architect mediated between the two.

3. Francesco di Giorgio Martini

This section goes into some detail on the work of Martini particularly on the mausoleum church that he designed for Federigo, San Bernadino degli Zoccolanti. It particularly highlights both the mathematical application of proportion and the copying and inspiration taken from antique ruins.

4. Donato Bramante

This section introduces Bramante and gives some sketchy background to his early years training as a painter and working on frescoes. Particular reference is made to Fra Carnevale of whom he was a pupil and of an engraving by Bernardo Prevedari Interior of a Ruined Church, or Temple with Figures (1481) (CB2 P7.18 p271) after a work commissioned from Bramante which displays a wide variety of architectural features and his use of detail and perspective.

Santa Maria della Grazie

Bramante moved to Milan ruled by Ludovico Sforza which at the time was also a centre for many other artists including Leonardo da Vinci. He appears to have been the architect for the new east wing pf the Dominican church of Santa Maria della Grazie. This work incorporates a number of antique classical designs and details seen in his earlier painting (reproduced in the engraving). The work is highly decorative however, which is thought to be the addition of the Lombard masons who actually carried out the construction. He left Milan in 1499 following the fall of the city to the French and moved to Rome, entering the service of Pope Julius II in 1503.

The Tempietto

A detailed review of the Tempietto with many architectural features explained and reference to circular temples in antiquity and how the pagan symbols were Christianized.

The Belvedere Corridor

Details and drawing describe and show the Belvedere Corridor, but more importantly in the design Bramante provided the basic vocabulary which was used again and again in classicising architecture over the centuries.

St. Peter's

Again much detail with plans covering the various attempts to come up with a centralised design.

Conclusion

In concluding this somewhat difficult chapter, Tim Benton points to the coming together of strands in central and North Italian culture. He highlights the importance of the pictorial training of architects such as Bramante, and how this allowed them to see the whole design together. He describes the court of Urbino as a laboratory, bringing together :

- scholarly interest in Vitruvius

- the architecture of antiquity (influence of Alberti)

- fascination with perspective and geometry

- respect for the early Renaissance style of Brunelleschi

Important was the 'movement of artists between centres, which helped to increase their confidence in solutions detached from local traditions of craftsmanship' (CB2 p290).

With Bramante there came together classical sources and the innovations of the late 15th Century to provide practical solutions to meet modern needs.

Week 14, Locating Renaissance Art, Chapter 6, Art in fifteenth-century Venice: 'an aesthetic of diversity'

Introduction

Carol Richardson introduces this chapter by explaining Venice's almost unique position within Western Europe of contacts with the East. She explains Venice's strong trading position throughout the Mediterranean and beyond, but looks particularly at the influence of the many different cultures on Venice, its society and its own culture. Of the East she points out that care should be taken not to confuse the very different cultures of the Islamic and the Byzantine.

1. A distinctive place

Paul Wood explains that the distinctiveness of Venice lies in the wide diversity of peoples populating the city and of the cultures that they brought. Venice had a long tradition of trading especially with the East, and the distinctive Byzantine and Islamic architecture and art mixed with those of mainland Italy and Northern Europe to create the city's uniqueness. It lacked antiquity and so its Renaissance was an import of ideas and images from other places. As a trading hub it was at the forefront of new developments especially technology. Printing flourished in Venice, and Durer twice visited the city from his German homeland.

2. Two devotional paintings

Focusing on two works of Giovanni Bellini Madonna Greca (c.1470) (CB2 P6.7 p222) and the San Giobbe altarpiece c.1480 (CB2 P6.13 p228) Paul Wood explores how Venice's unique position and its links through its wide trading network, with both the East and Northern Europe come together in creating its 'Renaissance style'. A lengthy section covers:

- Venice's Byzantine influences, St. Mark's cathedral particularly it's mosaics and its venerated icon Blessed Virgin Nikopoia (CB2 P6.6 p221).

- The established gothic influence with its use of gold and flat surface.

- The arrival of oilpainting that suited the Venetian love of light and surface effects.

Vasari dismisses Byzantine painting as '...that rude Greek manner' (CB2 p221) but in Venice its tradition of evoking religious contemplation, its use of gold and lack of spatial awareness became incorporated into the artistic development.

3. A portrait

The portrait in question is Portrait of Mehmet II (1480) oil on canvas (CB2 P6.14 p230) by Gentile Bellini who was sent to paint the Ottoman Emperor as part of the peace agreement between Venice and the Ottoman Empire. Bellini spent a year and a half in Constantinople and his image together with those of Constanza da Ferrara, medal of Mehmet II 1481 (CB2 P6.17 p233) did much to establish the image of the Turkish otherness that became used in Western art by the likes of Durer. Some of these images were positive, but many negative as the fear and suspicion of the Eastern Islamic Empire spread through the Christian West.

4. Some history paintings

This is a review of a number of paintings completed in Venice some of which show scenes of Venice and others imaginary scenes set in the East. The theme that links them however, are views of the 'otherness' of the East and Islamic culture. They tend to reinforce the idea that representations are drawn from a very limited pool of images, that mix both Ottoman and Mamluk dress and ideas such as seen in for example Gentile Bellini's Saint Mark Preaching in Alexandria c.1504-7 (CB2 P6.27 p243) but which also have a familiarity to the architecture of Venice and hence tend to show the conversion of Islam to Christianity alongside the notion of the predominance of Venice over the East.

Conclusion

Paul Wood's wonderful conclusion which includes speculation on the future, particularly of the pre-dominance of the Western canon of art, does however, draw together the manner in which this chapter has shown some aspects of the social and cultural diversity of 15th Century Venice and how that affected the art of the period and particularly its relationships with the East in its several manifestations.

Week 13, Locating Renaissance Art, Chapter 5, The painter Angelos and post-Byzantine art

Introduction

Carol Richardson sets out this chapter which concentrates on the painter Angelos and post-Byzantine art. She states that this art is often ignored when considering the Renaissance and that Vasari was completely dismissive and hostile towards what he called 'Greek manner'. However, Angelos working in Crete, a colony of Venice, was exposed to Italian influences and his working practices were very akin to Italian Renaissance artists. Like the Sienese his work shows continuity with local traditions as well as innovation.

The painter Angelos and post-Byzantine art

Angeliki Lymberopouloo explains that in this chapter she will explore the work of Angelos and the period of post-Byzantine art and its creation in Crete. The Byzantine Empire ended in 1453, 330 years after the founding of Constantinople, when it fell to the Ottoman Turks. Some parts of the old Byzantine Empire however, had been under Western rule since the Fourth Crusade in 1204 such as Crete. Here the Greek speaking Orthodox Christian communities continued to flourish, and Angelos was the leading artist of this period subsequently influencing artists such as El Greco.

1. Towards Angelos' Crete

This short section covers the history of Crete from 1204 when it became a Venetian possession and outlines the way in which it was governed, and how the native population and the 10,000 Venetian colonists eventually merged to establish their identity as Cretans. Over the period the divisions between the Catholics and the Orthodox narrowed as each became more familiar with and tolerant of the other. Following the fall of Constantinople in 1453 the art of Crete eventually lost its natural link to Constantinople and turned towards Venice as the primary artistic centre.

2. Who is Angelos?

This sections title describes it's content discussing the life of the painter and the evidence of his life, particularly his will. Working on Crete even as a Greek Byzantine painter, he was exposed to the art of the west, and even held a position on the island that would indicate links with the Venetian rulers.

3. Angelos' works

Techniques

Angelos' icons were generally painted on Cypress wood in egg tempera. Part of the technique was to put down a foundation layer of dark paint, representing the world before the arrival of Christ - the Light. He appears to have had quite a large workshop and the section describes his collection of patterns used for the icons, and records their value and desirability.

Tradition and innovation in iconography

This lengthy section discusses a number of works (icons) and their various styles, the manner in which they display a full awareness of Byzantine and Greek Orthodox tradition, alongside innovations that would tend to point to an awareness of Western art. The works reinforce the notion that Angelos had a great understanding of the Orthodox tradition and the scriptures.

Style

This section reviews a number of aspects of Angelos' work and his style alongside that of the Byzantine tradition. It concludes that he must have been a fully trained Byzantine artist. However, living in Crete and with exposure to the work of 14th Century Venetian artists there is a comparison made between Angelos' St. George on Horseback Killing the Dragon (mid-fifteenth century) (CB2 P5.198 p.195) and that of Paolo Veneziano Saint George Killing the Dragon (1340's) (CB2 P5.22 p.199). It is noted however, that some of the similarities could also be due to the influence of Byzantine art on the 14th century Venetian artist.

4 Angelos' students: Andreas Pavias, Andreas Ritzos and Nikolaos Zafuris

This section firstly looks at the way at which artists on Crete came to have a confraternity, and to work with apprentices and students under contracts, in the same manner as those in Italy and in Venice particularly. It then goes on to look at the work of the three students of Angelos comparing a number of their paintings and details from them with works of Angelos which show his training and influence. It shows how the work of Angelos and his influence was a major contributor to the development of post-Byzantine art and icons.

Conclusion

Briefly reviewing Angelos, his work which led to the development of post-Byzantine art and the reemergence of post-Byzantine Cretan painters. The point is made that this led to changes in the status and working practices of these artists and also to the revival and creation of icons which display new features, some of which can be seen as having been influenced by Italian and Western artists. Angelos also is recognised as the first Byzantine artist to promote his name and hence raise the status of the artist from craftsman. The difficulty of being 'known' because of the hard to pronounce and spell Greek names was to be highlighted and overcome by the later Cretan born artist El Greco, the name change enabling him to become 'known' in the West.

Week 12, Locating Renaissance Art, Chapter 4, Siena and its Renaissance

Introduction
Carol Richardson paints a brief picture of the history, civic pride and relationship of Sienna particularly with its powerful neighbour Florence. She points out that it lay on the via Franigena, the trade and pilgrim route running from Northern Europe to Rome, and as such the city was visited by many different nationalities. Sienese artists worked from a long tradition that formed 'an integral part of their national identity' (CB2,p133). The Renaissance is much about new techniques and approaches and Sienese artists practiced this against the 'powerful precedent of local tradition' (CB2,p133). The election of the Sienese Pope Pius II in 1458 prompted a more outward looking view but not at the expense of its own civic identity.

Siena and its Renaissance
Diana Norman outlines the geography and look of Siena and highlights its position on the pilgrim and trade route to Rome, that placed it in a position for the exchange in cultures that led to innovation and development in art, but how this was tempered by the long established artistic traditions of the city.

1. The survival of and respect for late medieval art in Siena
This section informs us of the strong civic pride within Siena and its dedication to the Virgin seen as the city's ruler and protector, based on a famous victory over Florence in 1260. During the 1300's there were many artworks in churches, frescoes on buildings, and within the city hall, showing scenes from the life of the Virgin. The presence of these works and their influence continued through into the 1400's and in 1448 the painter Sano di Pietro (1405-81) was instructed to paint a predella based on some of these earlier works. By the mid 1500's Siena had become a subject city of Florence,. but continued to preserve many of its own artistic traditions and had its own painters guild the Arte dei Pittori.

2. Civic schemes and projects (1400-1450)
Within this section there are considered a number of locations and works from the period. In 1402 Siena regained its independence from the control of the Duke of Milan, which led to this period of civic pride and self belief.

The Fonte Gaia
(The Fountain of Joy) was a large sculptural complex on the side of the Campo, carved by the Sienese sculpture Jacopo della Quercia (active 1394-1438) The importance of this work in its prestigious and public location is comparable to that of Ghiberti's first Baptistery doors and the sculptures of Orsanmichele in Florence. It carried important political messages for the whole community reinforcing Christian virtues, the position of the Virgin. and Siena's ambition 'to be known as a city founded during antiquity'. (CB2,p143)

The baptistry font
Another sculptural commission designed to enhance Sienese civic pride which in this case incorporates work by a number of sculptors including Donatello, Ghiberti and Jacopo della Quericia. The font within the baptistery has bronze reliefs similar to those of the baptistery doors in Florence, together with bronze statuettes and bronze putti, with low relief marble panels. The section highlights the bronze panels of Donatello with its single point perspective and Donatello;s skill in showing the narrative. This is The Presentation of the Head of St. John the Baptist to Herod (CB2 P4.13,p148) and Jacopo della Quercia's The Annunciation to Zachariah (CB2 P4.14,p149) and who creates a sense of space by setting the viewer at an angle from the building.

This work demonstrates how the Sienese government was willing to invest in order to enhance the cities reputation and status in a project that would benefit the whole populace. It shows how skilled artists from other cities would move from place to place in order to work, and also Jacopo della Quercia, the Sienese sculptor was himself in demand in other parts of Italy.

The Pellegrinaio

This is a long vaulted hall also known as the pilgrims hospice in the hospital of Santa Maria della Scala (CB2,P4.15,p150). This work is a complex decoration of this hall and was a collaborative effort by a number of Sienese and Florentine artists and others. This section describes the main paintings and how they reflect Renaissance styles from Florence including contemporary clothing in historical narratives. The paintings show events in the history of the institution which promote the importance of that institution and Siena itself. The section highlights the interchange of ideas between centres and how Sienese artists incorporated these into works that retained the Sienese taste for the art of earlier times.

3. Public and private commissions (1450-1510)

The Loggia of the Mercanzia

Somewhat in the style of the Orsanmichele this loggia was commissioned by the merchants as a prestigious building on the main thoroughfare. The five standing sculptures, three of which are of early saints associated with the city reflect the Renaissance taste for the style of antiquity. Inside the loggia two ornate stone benches once again reflect antiquity and hence add to Siena's claim to being an antique city and to display both the wealth and the lineage of the cities merchants.

The Piccolomini Loggia

This section deals with the work commissioned by Pope Pius II a member of the Piccolomini family in Siena. It highlights the Pope's influence in introducing Renaissance ideas and styles to Siena, but particularly how the loggia which is in a prominent Sienese site, promoted the Piccolomini family.

Piccolomini Palaces

Highlights three palaces built by the Piccolomini family which show both Renaissance style and a deference to traditional Sienese building styles and materials.

The Piccolomini Library

The decorative scheme which survives even today, was devised as a memorial and celebration to Pope Pius II and the Piccolomini family. The works both paintings and sculptures show the introduction of contemporary Renaisance ideas, but also particularly through paintings such as the Canonization of Saint Catherine of Siena promote a continued civic pride. The library as part of the cathedral show how a family commission of such status was accepted into Siena in similar style to the family commissions in the churches of Florence.

Conclusion

Pulling together this chapter the conclusion reinforces the influence that Rome and Florence and their Renaissance ideas had on the City, its civic and its private patrons. It points to the way in which the Sienese brought artists from other cities in, but also strongly emphasizes the strong tradition of Sienese artists working on these projects, and the way in which a civic pride in the city and its history has a continuing influence on the works commissioned.

Week 11, Locating Renaissance Art, Chapter 3, Tapestries as a transnational artistic commodity.

Introduction

Carol Richardson states that 'no works of art better sum up the international and transnational background to so much of the art produced in Europe than tapestries' CB2,p101). Tapestries were some of the most costly works of art, and also because of their flexibility and transportability the most versatile. Present in courts across Europe they were statements of status, associated with high rank.

Elizabeth Cleland introduces us to some of the patrons, purchasers and users of tapestries such as Cosimo I d' Medici and pope Leo X. She informs us that '15,000 people in Brussels, almost one third of the towns population, were involved with the production and trade of tapestries' (CB2,p103). This section will explore the place of tapestries as leading Renaissance art objects.

1. The significance of Brussels.

This section whilst focusing on the activities in Brussels covers the design and production of cartoons by painters, and subsequently how cartoons were held, copied and adapted by weavers' workshops for other tapestry productions. There is particular mention of designs by Rogier van der Weyden and his workshop and how they were repeatedly used and disseminated through tapestry, painting, sculpture and even pottery. The section explains methods of production and the control of the weavers by the guild in Brussels. There is discussion of the way in which many tapestries were produced without a commission for sale on the open market, and of how weavers and dealers became involved in the Europe wide trade of these objects. With the wide dissemination of these tapestries there was an obvious spread of artistic ideas particularly from the Netherlands, but equally different ideas were introduced to the weavers by cartoons from commissions throughout Europe.

2 Supply and Marketing

This section discusses the ways in which tapestries were sold, exported and supplied. The role of agents and dealers. The way in which virtually every court had tapestry specialists to maintain and repair tapestries. Also the way in which a number of craftsmen travelled to other parts of Europe often at the invitation of various Courts to establish production centres. Tapestries were very expensive highly prized items and as well as new and commissioned tapestries there was a significant market in second-hand items which were often adapted to include the armorial devices of the new owners.

The traditional production sequence was for the patron to commission a local artist to produce a cartoon to the liking of the patron, for this to be sent to a weaving centre such as Brussels, and for the weavers to produce the tapestry to this likeness, which was exported back to the patron. Often the cartoon remained with the weavers and joined their store of designs. This gave increased accessibility to artistic styles from Italy to a wide audience in Northern Europe as opposed to the limited number of viewers who may have seen a painting.

3 The appeal of tapestries.

This section deals with how and why tapestries were popular.

* aesthetic appeal of object itself. Made from expensive and exquisite materials and displaying such intriguing and beautiful designs of flora and fauna alongside appropriate themes of history, myth, religion etc. these objects intrigued and captured the interest and imagination of the viewer.

* status objects. Ownership and displaying of tapestries was a statement of position, wealth and power.

* multifunctional and portability. Originally acting as insulation these objects whilst still fulfilling this function in the North of Europe also became portable decorations and creators of ambiance and mood, both indoors and outdoors (courtyards, often for weddings).

* tapestries commodities of 'conspicuous consumption'.

* tapestries could be based upon original designs or copies of existing paintings frescos and sculpture.

Conclusion

The exploration of tapestry reveals the transnational attraction of Southern Netherlandish taste. It reveals an art form dominated by northern craftsmen and designers, but one open to innovation and re-interpretation. It reveals the wide appeal it had with the highest circles of rulers, secular and ecclesiastical, and how it became a 'must have' commodity. Although Brussels was at the centre of tapestry production, this chapter shows there were many other places of production as Flemish weavers moved across Europe.

Week 10, Locating Renassiance Art, Chapter 2, Netherlandish networks

Introduction

Carol Richardson sets out the prominence of Bruges as the north European centre for sea trade with the Meditteranean countries. She points out how in Bruges foreign traders, although not allowed to deal directly with each other only through local broker merchants, were integrated into local society and confraternities. This allowed great exposure to Netherlandish art and its resulting influence in Italy.

Chapter 2, Netherlandish networks

Introduction

Kim Woods explains the trade routes that pass through the industrial urban areas of Bruges (North-West Europe) Southern Germany and Northern Italy. How Bruges was the terminus of long distance trade routes both sea routes and overland, and how this exposed Netherlandish work to many foreign merchants and led to the export of both the work and some artists, particularly to Italy. During the 15th Century there was an established market for Netherlandish art outside of the Low Countries with no comparable tendency for non-Italians to commission or purchase Italian Renaissance art.

1. Jan van Eyck and Bruges

This section looks closely at works by Jan van Eyck especially those with foreign connections or patrons such as the Armolfini Portrait 1434 (CB2,P2.2,p67), and on the link with Genoese painters. This section explores the influence of van Eyck on Italian artists particularly his extraordinary naturalistic landscapes, which Italian artists sought to imitate, 'mountains, groves, hamlets, and castles [were] carried out with such skill you would believe one was 50 miles distant from another'. (CB2,p73)

a) Export of ideas.

b) Artists in Bruges seemed to have moved from other places

attracted by Bruges as a vibrant international centre.

c) Netherlandish landscape influenced Italian artists.

d) Single point perspective developed in Italy and travelled north.

2. Bruges after the death of van Eyck

Petrus Christus (died 1475/6)

Petrus Christus arrived in Bruges 1444. He was not an outright imitator of van Eyck but his work 'bears obvious continuity with the Eyckian tradition' (CB2,p73). Portrait of Edward Grimston (CB2,P2.7,p74) was for an Englishman and it is estimated that as much as half of his output was commissioned by Italians or has Italian or Spanish provenance.

Hans Memling (c.1430/40 - 94)

Hans Memling was another immigrant to Bruges coming originally from Selligenstadt near Frankfurt in 1465. It is likely that he had worked with Rogier van der Weyden and like van Eyck and Petrus Christus he continued the reputation for Netherlandish art with the International traders, expatriots and southern European patrons. His Christ as Man of Sorrows (CB2,P.2.13,p80) was either commissioned by an Italian or sent to Italy and was copied by the Florentine artist Domenico Ghirlandaio although in tempera not as in Memlings oils. (CB2,P2.14,p80). Much of his work continues the Eyckian tradition, with detailed landscapes, but, often works appear to have been painted to suit the style and cultural taste of the patron.

Gerard David

Another outsider who became a citizen of Bruges in 1484 and who continued the tradition of quality in Bruges art established by van Eyck, Petrus Christus and Hans Memling. Again much of his work was from international patrons and exported. Particular note is made of the Cervara alterpiece of 1506 which has been adapted in style to suit the Italian taste and culture. (CB2,P2.17,p83)

The strong tradition of painting owed much to incoming painters like those above, reflecting the ability of Bruges' Guilds and Society to accommodate its international status. It also reflects the rigorously enforced quality assurance measures of the Guild.

3. The Export of Netherlandish paintings

Religious paintings for private use

A brief look at two paintings attributed to Robert Campin/Master of Flemele both of which appear to have been exported at some point to Italy, and owned by influential Italian families.

Altarpieces

Several altarpieces are discussed in this section, painted by Netherlandish artists but destined for Italy, Spain, Germany and Scotland. Displaying much typical Netherlandish style, nevertheless, there are in some instances adaptions to accommodate other cultures and specific requests by the donors.

Paintings on Cloth

This section reviews the work of a number of Netherlandish artists who painted on cloth. Rogier van der Weyden, Dieric Bouts, Hugo van der Goes. Cloth was easily transportable, and much of this work appears to have been exported to Italy and produced for sale as opposed to commissions. In the work of Andrea Mantegna (CB2, P2.28 & P2.29, p96) it may be possible to see the influence of the Netherlandish artists.

4. The Netherlands as a training ground for artists

This section deals with the movement of artists to the Low Countries from particularly Spain in order to learn Netherlandish style and also of Low Country artists working in the courts of rulers in other parts of Europe.

Postscript: Quinten Metsys and Antwerp

The postscript focusing on Quinten Metsys describes the move of influence and commerce from Bruges to Antwerp and the evolving influence of the Italian Renaissance from the turn of the 15Th Century. By the mid 1500's it was artists from the North who were visiting Italy to study and learn painting techniques.