Viewing Renaissance Art

Chapter 1 notes written and posted 4.12.07 - Art Class and Wealth

Chapter 2 notes written and posted 5.1.08 - Florentine art and the public good

Chapter 6 notes written and posted 7.1.08 - Art and death

Week 15, Locating Renaissance Art, Chapter 7, Bramante and the sources of the Roman High Renaissance

Introduction

Carol Richardson introduces us to the architect Donato Bramante (1443/4 - 1514). Working in Rome for Pope Julius II who also employed Michelangelo for the Sistine chapel, Bramante's project was the rebuilding of St. Peter's Bascilica, one of the most controversial and disputed projects of the time. Julius II tended to leave his artists to innovate, which lead to ambitious projects which were rarely finished in the Pope's lifetime. The Popes saw themselves as successors of both St. Peter and the Roman Emperors, but also saw themselves as transcending the past. With the project commissioned Julius II believed it was time for a new age in Rome.

Bramante and the sources of the Roman High Renaissance

Tim Benton commences this chapter quoting Sebastiano Serlio (1475-1554) in his book on antiquities in 1540 in which he states that Bramante 'brought back to life the fine architecture which from the ancients to that time had lain buried' (CB2 p251). He laid out his plan for the chapter to include local architectural practice, printed treatises, the significance of the court of Urbino, and St Peter's in Rome.

1. Order and ornament

In this section explanation is given of the way in which architecture emerged in two ways. the first very much in the tradition of Filippo Brunelleschi (1377-1446) was based on the art of arithmetic and geometry as the cornerstones for design, in which 'space and volume are clearly delimited and decoration is reduced to the forms associated with the orders used (Corinthian, Ionic and Doric)' (CB2p252). In the second there is less geometry, less certainty and clarity but instead illusion, complexity and a richness of decoration. Alberti in his treatise On the Art of Building in Ten Books (1450-72) defines the first as 'primary beauty' to do with basic volumes and forms, and the second 'auxilary beauty' derived from ornament. Bramante's early work can be compared to the second his late work to the first.

2. The court of Urbino

Duke Federigo de Montefeltro's court at Urbino was a centre at which numerous and artists and architects spent time. Within the court was a culture that promoted scholarship, theoretical speculation, geometry, perspective, and a pure and austere style of painting and architecture. Amongst those who spent time in Urbino was Alberti, Piero della Francesca and Raphael. Piero was a skilled painter and distinguished mathematician, and his work had a profound influence as can be seen from his painting the Sacre Conversazione 1472-4 oil and tempera on panel (CB2 P7.7 p258). Luca Pacioli the author of On Divine Proportion (1497) was another who spent time at Urbino and who admired the work of Piero della Francesco and derived much from his manuscripts on regular solids. Within this court with its numerous visitors was the opportunity for a wide exchange of ideas and knowledge. Highlighted was the importance of travel that many made between different centres such as Naples, Mantua, Pesaro, Rome and Urbino to gather knowledge of antique sources and new ideas. Federigo 'was also significant in lending prestige to the art of architecture as distinguished from the craft of masons or builders' (CB2 p259). He distinguishes between the invention based on arithmetic and geometry and the practical dealing with construction. The patron with advises was the key figure in the first, the craftsman in the second, and the architect mediated between the two.

3. Francesco di Giorgio Martini

This section goes into some detail on the work of Martini particularly on the mausoleum church that he designed for Federigo, San Bernadino degli Zoccolanti. It particularly highlights both the mathematical application of proportion and the copying and inspiration taken from antique ruins.

4. Donato Bramante

This section introduces Bramante and gives some sketchy background to his early years training as a painter and working on frescoes. Particular reference is made to Fra Carnevale of whom he was a pupil and of an engraving by Bernardo Prevedari Interior of a Ruined Church, or Temple with Figures (1481) (CB2 P7.18 p271) after a work commissioned from Bramante which displays a wide variety of architectural features and his use of detail and perspective.

Santa Maria della Grazie

Bramante moved to Milan ruled by Ludovico Sforza which at the time was also a centre for many other artists including Leonardo da Vinci. He appears to have been the architect for the new east wing pf the Dominican church of Santa Maria della Grazie. This work incorporates a number of antique classical designs and details seen in his earlier painting (reproduced in the engraving). The work is highly decorative however, which is thought to be the addition of the Lombard masons who actually carried out the construction. He left Milan in 1499 following the fall of the city to the French and moved to Rome, entering the service of Pope Julius II in 1503.

The Tempietto

A detailed review of the Tempietto with many architectural features explained and reference to circular temples in antiquity and how the pagan symbols were Christianized.

The Belvedere Corridor

Details and drawing describe and show the Belvedere Corridor, but more importantly in the design Bramante provided the basic vocabulary which was used again and again in classicising architecture over the centuries.

St. Peter's

Again much detail with plans covering the various attempts to come up with a centralised design.

Conclusion

In concluding this somewhat difficult chapter, Tim Benton points to the coming together of strands in central and North Italian culture. He highlights the importance of the pictorial training of architects such as Bramante, and how this allowed them to see the whole design together. He describes the court of Urbino as a laboratory, bringing together :

- scholarly interest in Vitruvius

- the architecture of antiquity (influence of Alberti)

- fascination with perspective and geometry

- respect for the early Renaissance style of Brunelleschi

Important was the 'movement of artists between centres, which helped to increase their confidence in solutions detached from local traditions of craftsmanship' (CB2 p290).

With Bramante there came together classical sources and the innovations of the late 15th Century to provide practical solutions to meet modern needs.

Week 14, Locating Renaissance Art, Chapter 6, Art in fifteenth-century Venice: 'an aesthetic of diversity'

Introduction

Carol Richardson introduces this chapter by explaining Venice's almost unique position within Western Europe of contacts with the East. She explains Venice's strong trading position throughout the Mediterranean and beyond, but looks particularly at the influence of the many different cultures on Venice, its society and its own culture. Of the East she points out that care should be taken not to confuse the very different cultures of the Islamic and the Byzantine.

1. A distinctive place

Paul Wood explains that the distinctiveness of Venice lies in the wide diversity of peoples populating the city and of the cultures that they brought. Venice had a long tradition of trading especially with the East, and the distinctive Byzantine and Islamic architecture and art mixed with those of mainland Italy and Northern Europe to create the city's uniqueness. It lacked antiquity and so its Renaissance was an import of ideas and images from other places. As a trading hub it was at the forefront of new developments especially technology. Printing flourished in Venice, and Durer twice visited the city from his German homeland.

2. Two devotional paintings

Focusing on two works of Giovanni Bellini Madonna Greca (c.1470) (CB2 P6.7 p222) and the San Giobbe altarpiece c.1480 (CB2 P6.13 p228) Paul Wood explores how Venice's unique position and its links through its wide trading network, with both the East and Northern Europe come together in creating its 'Renaissance style'. A lengthy section covers:

- Venice's Byzantine influences, St. Mark's cathedral particularly it's mosaics and its venerated icon Blessed Virgin Nikopoia (CB2 P6.6 p221).

- The established gothic influence with its use of gold and flat surface.

- The arrival of oilpainting that suited the Venetian love of light and surface effects.

Vasari dismisses Byzantine painting as '...that rude Greek manner' (CB2 p221) but in Venice its tradition of evoking religious contemplation, its use of gold and lack of spatial awareness became incorporated into the artistic development.

3. A portrait

The portrait in question is Portrait of Mehmet II (1480) oil on canvas (CB2 P6.14 p230) by Gentile Bellini who was sent to paint the Ottoman Emperor as part of the peace agreement between Venice and the Ottoman Empire. Bellini spent a year and a half in Constantinople and his image together with those of Constanza da Ferrara, medal of Mehmet II 1481 (CB2 P6.17 p233) did much to establish the image of the Turkish otherness that became used in Western art by the likes of Durer. Some of these images were positive, but many negative as the fear and suspicion of the Eastern Islamic Empire spread through the Christian West.

4. Some history paintings

This is a review of a number of paintings completed in Venice some of which show scenes of Venice and others imaginary scenes set in the East. The theme that links them however, are views of the 'otherness' of the East and Islamic culture. They tend to reinforce the idea that representations are drawn from a very limited pool of images, that mix both Ottoman and Mamluk dress and ideas such as seen in for example Gentile Bellini's Saint Mark Preaching in Alexandria c.1504-7 (CB2 P6.27 p243) but which also have a familiarity to the architecture of Venice and hence tend to show the conversion of Islam to Christianity alongside the notion of the predominance of Venice over the East.

Conclusion

Paul Wood's wonderful conclusion which includes speculation on the future, particularly of the pre-dominance of the Western canon of art, does however, draw together the manner in which this chapter has shown some aspects of the social and cultural diversity of 15th Century Venice and how that affected the art of the period and particularly its relationships with the East in its several manifestations.

Week 13, Locating Renaissance Art, Chapter 5, The painter Angelos and post-Byzantine art

Introduction

Carol Richardson sets out this chapter which concentrates on the painter Angelos and post-Byzantine art. She states that this art is often ignored when considering the Renaissance and that Vasari was completely dismissive and hostile towards what he called 'Greek manner'. However, Angelos working in Crete, a colony of Venice, was exposed to Italian influences and his working practices were very akin to Italian Renaissance artists. Like the Sienese his work shows continuity with local traditions as well as innovation.

The painter Angelos and post-Byzantine art

Angeliki Lymberopouloo explains that in this chapter she will explore the work of Angelos and the period of post-Byzantine art and its creation in Crete. The Byzantine Empire ended in 1453, 330 years after the founding of Constantinople, when it fell to the Ottoman Turks. Some parts of the old Byzantine Empire however, had been under Western rule since the Fourth Crusade in 1204 such as Crete. Here the Greek speaking Orthodox Christian communities continued to flourish, and Angelos was the leading artist of this period subsequently influencing artists such as El Greco.

1. Towards Angelos' Crete

This short section covers the history of Crete from 1204 when it became a Venetian possession and outlines the way in which it was governed, and how the native population and the 10,000 Venetian colonists eventually merged to establish their identity as Cretans. Over the period the divisions between the Catholics and the Orthodox narrowed as each became more familiar with and tolerant of the other. Following the fall of Constantinople in 1453 the art of Crete eventually lost its natural link to Constantinople and turned towards Venice as the primary artistic centre.

2. Who is Angelos?

This sections title describes it's content discussing the life of the painter and the evidence of his life, particularly his will. Working on Crete even as a Greek Byzantine painter, he was exposed to the art of the west, and even held a position on the island that would indicate links with the Venetian rulers.

3. Angelos' works

Techniques

Angelos' icons were generally painted on Cypress wood in egg tempera. Part of the technique was to put down a foundation layer of dark paint, representing the world before the arrival of Christ - the Light. He appears to have had quite a large workshop and the section describes his collection of patterns used for the icons, and records their value and desirability.

Tradition and innovation in iconography

This lengthy section discusses a number of works (icons) and their various styles, the manner in which they display a full awareness of Byzantine and Greek Orthodox tradition, alongside innovations that would tend to point to an awareness of Western art. The works reinforce the notion that Angelos had a great understanding of the Orthodox tradition and the scriptures.

Style

This section reviews a number of aspects of Angelos' work and his style alongside that of the Byzantine tradition. It concludes that he must have been a fully trained Byzantine artist. However, living in Crete and with exposure to the work of 14th Century Venetian artists there is a comparison made between Angelos' St. George on Horseback Killing the Dragon (mid-fifteenth century) (CB2 P5.198 p.195) and that of Paolo Veneziano Saint George Killing the Dragon (1340's) (CB2 P5.22 p.199). It is noted however, that some of the similarities could also be due to the influence of Byzantine art on the 14th century Venetian artist.

4 Angelos' students: Andreas Pavias, Andreas Ritzos and Nikolaos Zafuris

This section firstly looks at the way at which artists on Crete came to have a confraternity, and to work with apprentices and students under contracts, in the same manner as those in Italy and in Venice particularly. It then goes on to look at the work of the three students of Angelos comparing a number of their paintings and details from them with works of Angelos which show his training and influence. It shows how the work of Angelos and his influence was a major contributor to the development of post-Byzantine art and icons.

Conclusion

Briefly reviewing Angelos, his work which led to the development of post-Byzantine art and the reemergence of post-Byzantine Cretan painters. The point is made that this led to changes in the status and working practices of these artists and also to the revival and creation of icons which display new features, some of which can be seen as having been influenced by Italian and Western artists. Angelos also is recognised as the first Byzantine artist to promote his name and hence raise the status of the artist from craftsman. The difficulty of being 'known' because of the hard to pronounce and spell Greek names was to be highlighted and overcome by the later Cretan born artist El Greco, the name change enabling him to become 'known' in the West.

Week 12, Locating Renaissance Art, Chapter 4, Siena and its Renaissance

Introduction
Carol Richardson paints a brief picture of the history, civic pride and relationship of Sienna particularly with its powerful neighbour Florence. She points out that it lay on the via Franigena, the trade and pilgrim route running from Northern Europe to Rome, and as such the city was visited by many different nationalities. Sienese artists worked from a long tradition that formed 'an integral part of their national identity' (CB2,p133). The Renaissance is much about new techniques and approaches and Sienese artists practiced this against the 'powerful precedent of local tradition' (CB2,p133). The election of the Sienese Pope Pius II in 1458 prompted a more outward looking view but not at the expense of its own civic identity.

Siena and its Renaissance
Diana Norman outlines the geography and look of Siena and highlights its position on the pilgrim and trade route to Rome, that placed it in a position for the exchange in cultures that led to innovation and development in art, but how this was tempered by the long established artistic traditions of the city.

1. The survival of and respect for late medieval art in Siena
This section informs us of the strong civic pride within Siena and its dedication to the Virgin seen as the city's ruler and protector, based on a famous victory over Florence in 1260. During the 1300's there were many artworks in churches, frescoes on buildings, and within the city hall, showing scenes from the life of the Virgin. The presence of these works and their influence continued through into the 1400's and in 1448 the painter Sano di Pietro (1405-81) was instructed to paint a predella based on some of these earlier works. By the mid 1500's Siena had become a subject city of Florence,. but continued to preserve many of its own artistic traditions and had its own painters guild the Arte dei Pittori.

2. Civic schemes and projects (1400-1450)
Within this section there are considered a number of locations and works from the period. In 1402 Siena regained its independence from the control of the Duke of Milan, which led to this period of civic pride and self belief.

The Fonte Gaia
(The Fountain of Joy) was a large sculptural complex on the side of the Campo, carved by the Sienese sculpture Jacopo della Quercia (active 1394-1438) The importance of this work in its prestigious and public location is comparable to that of Ghiberti's first Baptistery doors and the sculptures of Orsanmichele in Florence. It carried important political messages for the whole community reinforcing Christian virtues, the position of the Virgin. and Siena's ambition 'to be known as a city founded during antiquity'. (CB2,p143)

The baptistry font
Another sculptural commission designed to enhance Sienese civic pride which in this case incorporates work by a number of sculptors including Donatello, Ghiberti and Jacopo della Quericia. The font within the baptistery has bronze reliefs similar to those of the baptistery doors in Florence, together with bronze statuettes and bronze putti, with low relief marble panels. The section highlights the bronze panels of Donatello with its single point perspective and Donatello;s skill in showing the narrative. This is The Presentation of the Head of St. John the Baptist to Herod (CB2 P4.13,p148) and Jacopo della Quercia's The Annunciation to Zachariah (CB2 P4.14,p149) and who creates a sense of space by setting the viewer at an angle from the building.

This work demonstrates how the Sienese government was willing to invest in order to enhance the cities reputation and status in a project that would benefit the whole populace. It shows how skilled artists from other cities would move from place to place in order to work, and also Jacopo della Quercia, the Sienese sculptor was himself in demand in other parts of Italy.

The Pellegrinaio

This is a long vaulted hall also known as the pilgrims hospice in the hospital of Santa Maria della Scala (CB2,P4.15,p150). This work is a complex decoration of this hall and was a collaborative effort by a number of Sienese and Florentine artists and others. This section describes the main paintings and how they reflect Renaissance styles from Florence including contemporary clothing in historical narratives. The paintings show events in the history of the institution which promote the importance of that institution and Siena itself. The section highlights the interchange of ideas between centres and how Sienese artists incorporated these into works that retained the Sienese taste for the art of earlier times.

3. Public and private commissions (1450-1510)

The Loggia of the Mercanzia

Somewhat in the style of the Orsanmichele this loggia was commissioned by the merchants as a prestigious building on the main thoroughfare. The five standing sculptures, three of which are of early saints associated with the city reflect the Renaissance taste for the style of antiquity. Inside the loggia two ornate stone benches once again reflect antiquity and hence add to Siena's claim to being an antique city and to display both the wealth and the lineage of the cities merchants.

The Piccolomini Loggia

This section deals with the work commissioned by Pope Pius II a member of the Piccolomini family in Siena. It highlights the Pope's influence in introducing Renaissance ideas and styles to Siena, but particularly how the loggia which is in a prominent Sienese site, promoted the Piccolomini family.

Piccolomini Palaces

Highlights three palaces built by the Piccolomini family which show both Renaissance style and a deference to traditional Sienese building styles and materials.

The Piccolomini Library

The decorative scheme which survives even today, was devised as a memorial and celebration to Pope Pius II and the Piccolomini family. The works both paintings and sculptures show the introduction of contemporary Renaisance ideas, but also particularly through paintings such as the Canonization of Saint Catherine of Siena promote a continued civic pride. The library as part of the cathedral show how a family commission of such status was accepted into Siena in similar style to the family commissions in the churches of Florence.

Conclusion

Pulling together this chapter the conclusion reinforces the influence that Rome and Florence and their Renaissance ideas had on the City, its civic and its private patrons. It points to the way in which the Sienese brought artists from other cities in, but also strongly emphasizes the strong tradition of Sienese artists working on these projects, and the way in which a civic pride in the city and its history has a continuing influence on the works commissioned.

Week 11, Locating Renaissance Art, Chapter 3, Tapestries as a transnational artistic commodity.

Introduction

Carol Richardson states that 'no works of art better sum up the international and transnational background to so much of the art produced in Europe than tapestries' CB2,p101). Tapestries were some of the most costly works of art, and also because of their flexibility and transportability the most versatile. Present in courts across Europe they were statements of status, associated with high rank.

Elizabeth Cleland introduces us to some of the patrons, purchasers and users of tapestries such as Cosimo I d' Medici and pope Leo X. She informs us that '15,000 people in Brussels, almost one third of the towns population, were involved with the production and trade of tapestries' (CB2,p103). This section will explore the place of tapestries as leading Renaissance art objects.

1. The significance of Brussels.

This section whilst focusing on the activities in Brussels covers the design and production of cartoons by painters, and subsequently how cartoons were held, copied and adapted by weavers' workshops for other tapestry productions. There is particular mention of designs by Rogier van der Weyden and his workshop and how they were repeatedly used and disseminated through tapestry, painting, sculpture and even pottery. The section explains methods of production and the control of the weavers by the guild in Brussels. There is discussion of the way in which many tapestries were produced without a commission for sale on the open market, and of how weavers and dealers became involved in the Europe wide trade of these objects. With the wide dissemination of these tapestries there was an obvious spread of artistic ideas particularly from the Netherlands, but equally different ideas were introduced to the weavers by cartoons from commissions throughout Europe.

2 Supply and Marketing

This section discusses the ways in which tapestries were sold, exported and supplied. The role of agents and dealers. The way in which virtually every court had tapestry specialists to maintain and repair tapestries. Also the way in which a number of craftsmen travelled to other parts of Europe often at the invitation of various Courts to establish production centres. Tapestries were very expensive highly prized items and as well as new and commissioned tapestries there was a significant market in second-hand items which were often adapted to include the armorial devices of the new owners.

The traditional production sequence was for the patron to commission a local artist to produce a cartoon to the liking of the patron, for this to be sent to a weaving centre such as Brussels, and for the weavers to produce the tapestry to this likeness, which was exported back to the patron. Often the cartoon remained with the weavers and joined their store of designs. This gave increased accessibility to artistic styles from Italy to a wide audience in Northern Europe as opposed to the limited number of viewers who may have seen a painting.

3 The appeal of tapestries.

This section deals with how and why tapestries were popular.

* aesthetic appeal of object itself. Made from expensive and exquisite materials and displaying such intriguing and beautiful designs of flora and fauna alongside appropriate themes of history, myth, religion etc. these objects intrigued and captured the interest and imagination of the viewer.

* status objects. Ownership and displaying of tapestries was a statement of position, wealth and power.

* multifunctional and portability. Originally acting as insulation these objects whilst still fulfilling this function in the North of Europe also became portable decorations and creators of ambiance and mood, both indoors and outdoors (courtyards, often for weddings).

* tapestries commodities of 'conspicuous consumption'.

* tapestries could be based upon original designs or copies of existing paintings frescos and sculpture.

Conclusion

The exploration of tapestry reveals the transnational attraction of Southern Netherlandish taste. It reveals an art form dominated by northern craftsmen and designers, but one open to innovation and re-interpretation. It reveals the wide appeal it had with the highest circles of rulers, secular and ecclesiastical, and how it became a 'must have' commodity. Although Brussels was at the centre of tapestry production, this chapter shows there were many other places of production as Flemish weavers moved across Europe.

Week 10, Locating Renassiance Art, Chapter 2, Netherlandish networks

Introduction

Carol Richardson sets out the prominence of Bruges as the north European centre for sea trade with the Meditteranean countries. She points out how in Bruges foreign traders, although not allowed to deal directly with each other only through local broker merchants, were integrated into local society and confraternities. This allowed great exposure to Netherlandish art and its resulting influence in Italy.

Chapter 2, Netherlandish networks

Introduction

Kim Woods explains the trade routes that pass through the industrial urban areas of Bruges (North-West Europe) Southern Germany and Northern Italy. How Bruges was the terminus of long distance trade routes both sea routes and overland, and how this exposed Netherlandish work to many foreign merchants and led to the export of both the work and some artists, particularly to Italy. During the 15th Century there was an established market for Netherlandish art outside of the Low Countries with no comparable tendency for non-Italians to commission or purchase Italian Renaissance art.

1. Jan van Eyck and Bruges

This section looks closely at works by Jan van Eyck especially those with foreign connections or patrons such as the Armolfini Portrait 1434 (CB2,P2.2,p67), and on the link with Genoese painters. This section explores the influence of van Eyck on Italian artists particularly his extraordinary naturalistic landscapes, which Italian artists sought to imitate, 'mountains, groves, hamlets, and castles [were] carried out with such skill you would believe one was 50 miles distant from another'. (CB2,p73)

a) Export of ideas.

b) Artists in Bruges seemed to have moved from other places

attracted by Bruges as a vibrant international centre.

c) Netherlandish landscape influenced Italian artists.

d) Single point perspective developed in Italy and travelled north.

2. Bruges after the death of van Eyck

Petrus Christus (died 1475/6)

Petrus Christus arrived in Bruges 1444. He was not an outright imitator of van Eyck but his work 'bears obvious continuity with the Eyckian tradition' (CB2,p73). Portrait of Edward Grimston (CB2,P2.7,p74) was for an Englishman and it is estimated that as much as half of his output was commissioned by Italians or has Italian or Spanish provenance.

Hans Memling (c.1430/40 - 94)

Hans Memling was another immigrant to Bruges coming originally from Selligenstadt near Frankfurt in 1465. It is likely that he had worked with Rogier van der Weyden and like van Eyck and Petrus Christus he continued the reputation for Netherlandish art with the International traders, expatriots and southern European patrons. His Christ as Man of Sorrows (CB2,P.2.13,p80) was either commissioned by an Italian or sent to Italy and was copied by the Florentine artist Domenico Ghirlandaio although in tempera not as in Memlings oils. (CB2,P2.14,p80). Much of his work continues the Eyckian tradition, with detailed landscapes, but, often works appear to have been painted to suit the style and cultural taste of the patron.

Gerard David

Another outsider who became a citizen of Bruges in 1484 and who continued the tradition of quality in Bruges art established by van Eyck, Petrus Christus and Hans Memling. Again much of his work was from international patrons and exported. Particular note is made of the Cervara alterpiece of 1506 which has been adapted in style to suit the Italian taste and culture. (CB2,P2.17,p83)

The strong tradition of painting owed much to incoming painters like those above, reflecting the ability of Bruges' Guilds and Society to accommodate its international status. It also reflects the rigorously enforced quality assurance measures of the Guild.

3. The Export of Netherlandish paintings

Religious paintings for private use

A brief look at two paintings attributed to Robert Campin/Master of Flemele both of which appear to have been exported at some point to Italy, and owned by influential Italian families.

Altarpieces

Several altarpieces are discussed in this section, painted by Netherlandish artists but destined for Italy, Spain, Germany and Scotland. Displaying much typical Netherlandish style, nevertheless, there are in some instances adaptions to accommodate other cultures and specific requests by the donors.

Paintings on Cloth

This section reviews the work of a number of Netherlandish artists who painted on cloth. Rogier van der Weyden, Dieric Bouts, Hugo van der Goes. Cloth was easily transportable, and much of this work appears to have been exported to Italy and produced for sale as opposed to commissions. In the work of Andrea Mantegna (CB2, P2.28 & P2.29, p96) it may be possible to see the influence of the Netherlandish artists.

4. The Netherlands as a training ground for artists

This section deals with the movement of artists to the Low Countries from particularly Spain in order to learn Netherlandish style and also of Low Country artists working in the courts of rulers in other parts of Europe.

Postscript: Quinten Metsys and Antwerp

The postscript focusing on Quinten Metsys describes the move of influence and commerce from Bruges to Antwerp and the evolving influence of the Italian Renaissance from the turn of the 15Th Century. By the mid 1500's it was artists from the North who were visiting Italy to study and learn painting techniques.

Week 9 - Locating Renaissance Art - Chapter 1, The Allure of Rome

Introduction

Carol Richardson sets out how this chapter will look primarily at the interchange between Rome and Florence, and provides some brief historical background to the period 1450-1500. She points out that in the mid 15th Century, Rome was a small city compared to London, Paris, Milan and Venice but as the papal home, Rome was a huge pilgrimage centre with thousands of visitors. Particular mention is made of Florence's trading activity, especially its control of Pisa, a vibrant port, control of which was lost in 1494 leading to the overthrow of the Medici rulers. This chapter will examine why so many artists especially Florentines were drawn to work in Rome.

1. Florence and Rome: the two cities compared

Literally as per the title with a brief review of the history of both cities, suggesting that in the latter half of the 15th Century,Rome was in ascendancy and Florence declining in power and influence. Following the departure of the Medici's, Savonarola sought to set up a theocracy in Florence which ended in his execution for heresy (1498). Guilds had been long established in Florence and exercised great political influence, whereas in Rome they were only formed in the 15th and 16th Centuries. In Florence there were seven major guilds arti maggiore and fourteen minor guilds the arti minori which represented all professions. Only the seven leading guilds had major political influence, and two guilds in particular, the Arte della Lana (woodworkers) and the Mercanti (Guild of Merchants) dominated. In both cities artists were dependent upon guild membership for networking and connection to patrons.

Peter Clarkson's list from AA315 OUSA conference:

Giudici e Notai = magistrates and notaries
Linaiuoli e Rigattieri = linen weavers and peddlers
Calimala = wool merchants
Lana = Wool manufacturers
Seta = silk merchants
Cambio = bankers
Corazzai = armourers
Beccai = butchers
Pellicciai = furriers
Maneschalchi = farriers
Mercanza = merchants
Medici e Speziali = doctors and apothecaries
Pietra e Legname = wood and stone workers
Calzaiuoli = shoe makers

2. The Medici and the popes

This section discussed the relationship between the Medici bankers and the papacy, and how the Medici became the exclusive bankers to the papal court during the time of crisis within the church, hence establishing great influence with the popes and the church. During part of this time the papal court moved to Florence and Florence hosted (paid for by the Medici's) the Council of Ferrara between the Roman Catholic and the Orthodox churches. This led to a great number of religious commissions in Florence and Cosimo Medici building the monastery of San Marco, which was decorated with the frescos of Fra Angelica, the Dominican painter. The special relationship between Florence and the popes is also highlighted by the tomb of Baldassare Cossa (Pope John XXIII-one of three popes who co-existed between 1378 -1417) in the Baptistry of Florence cathedral by Donatello and Michelozzo (CB2,P1.15,p31). Fra Angelico's fresco's also reveal strong links with the Medici's as their patron saints and their emblems appear in numerous works mentioned in this section, (e.g. CB2,P1.8,p34) and also the prominence given to the adoration of the Magi, the confraternity of which was a Medici stronghold.

The section concludes with the work of Fra Angelica in the chapel of Nicholas V in the Vatican palace following the return of the papacy to Rome, exploring the themes and iconography that reinforce the authority of the pope and the power of the church.

This section emphasises how the relationship between these two powerful forces gave patronage to Fra Angelica and how these interstate networking and exchanges affected the art world.

3. Botticelli in Florence and in Rome

This section continues to consider the Medici, papal, Rome, Florence relationship between the 15th Century, and the decline and change in the Medici fortunes as they lost their position as papal bankers, and sought to regain influence through other means such as marriages with papal families.

Botticelli's Adoration of the Magi (CB2,P1.15,p42) is reviewed and its political use in showing the Medici's as the magi, highlights their use of manipulation. Not daring to commission such a work themselves they used Gasparre del Lama to commission an altarpiece for his own chapel to achieve this. Botticelli's other works such as Pallas and the Centaur (CB2,P1.16,p44) and the Primavera (CB2,P1.17,p45) reflect on the Medici's power and the encouragement of intellectual study.

Relationships with Rome deteriorated into a two year war following the assassination attempt of Lorenzo de Medici by the Pazzi a rival banking family who were aligned with the papacy. Rebuilding relationships after this saw Botticelli and other Florentine artists working in Rome on the Sistine Chapel.

4. The Sistine Chapel

This section reviews the work of the four Florentine artists Perugino, Ghirlandaio, Rosselli, and Botticelli and their frescos in the Sistine Chapel prior to the work by Michelangelo. The scenes parallel the lives of Moses and Christ, the lawgivers of the old and new testament, and reinforce the authority of the popes as the descendants of St. Peter. Many of the scenes incorporate views and architecture of contemporary Rome.

5. 'To aid the City and our house'

This short section describes how Florentine artists were used by the Medici's as cultural diplomacy being highly regarded as artists and sought after for their work. They were presented as representing Florence and the Medici's. The four plus Fillipo Lippi were even seen as an official team. Mention is made of Lorenzo Medici's son Giovanni who was granted a cardinals hat in return for a financial deal. Giovanni was later to become Pope Leo X. Lorenzo wrote to his son in March 1492: 'Today I have given you entirely to our Lord God and to Holy Church; it is therefore essential that you become a good ecclesiastic...While doing this it will not be difficult for you to aid the city and our house, for the city being united to the Church, you must serve as the vital link, and our house will thus become part of the city...The rank of Cardinal is as secure as it is great'. (CB2,p54-55).

6. Michelangelo in Florence and in Rome

This section outlines the ascendancy of Michelangelo from arriving in Florence at the age of 15 to his triumphs of the Pieta (CB2,P1.29,p59) and David(copy CB2,P1.30,p60). It reports on his commissions in Florence and Rome and that he exploited his unique abilities to accumulate large financial returns in an increasingly international market.

Conclusion

Rounding up this chapter is the view that within Rome artists whether from Florence or other places had the opportunity to be exposed to ancient sites and classical architecture and sculpture, but more importantly had the opportunity to work on large-scale collaborative projects unparalleled in other places.

Locating Renaissance Art - Week 9 - Introduction

Introduction
Carol Richardson writes that although Florence has been given pre-eminence in Renaissance art, the circumstances that led to its standing as a wealthy city state were reproduced in other cities across Europe, as international trade and banking developed. In the book she will consider some of these different centres, and the various influences that shaped them and that they in turn had on others.

1. Shifting boundaries
'the chapters in this book all consider the creation of works of art as products of 'communicative events' - between artists and their patrons, between one centre and another, and their patrons, between one culture and another' (CB2,p.16). A number of the chapters are to consider specific cities or artists. The trade in works of art and also movement of artists between centres.

2. Networks
This section reviews the connections between various centres, the trading and ecclesiastical postal and communication systems that were established and the manner in which foreign communities established themselves particularly looking at the German community in Venice and their commissioning of an altarpiece for their chapel by Albrecht Durer, Madonna of the Rose Garlands (1506) (CB2,P0.2,p.20)

3. Changing horizons
Notes on historical settings highlighting the changing boundaries and states throughout the Renaissance. This section highlights a European view of the Mediterranean at the centre of the world which gave the Italian peninsular a prominent position. The Renaissance also became centred on Italy because of the references to classical antiquity that were increasingly fashionable.

Conclusion
This book will take a wide 'historical' look at Renaissance art and how it was linked by the cultural, economic and political networks and developed in different centres rather than a closed view of Renaissance art being purely Italian.

Chapter 7 - Making Renaissance Art - Week 7 - Making histories, publishing theories

Introduction
Kim Woods introduces us to the proliferation of literature on art, painting, architecture etc. that came about during the years of the Renaissance. She highlights the most famous, Vasari's Lives, but points out that in both North and South Europe there were many other writings and treatises. There seems to be a question as to how much influence these actually had on workshop training

during this time, which is one of the issues to be discussed in this chapter.

Catherine King writes: were the texts to be considered initiated by patrons and scholars or by artists themselves? Did they actually change the practice and appearance of art? or 'the way that artists saw themselves and were seen in professional, social and intellectual terms' (Bk1, p.251)

1. The partnership between writing histories and composing treatises

Education and communication of ideas

Generally artists were not educated to a level that enabled them to understand Latin but there were exceptions. Some had collections of books and some had none.

Communicating orally, in visual images and in writing

Ideas and developments in art had always been passed on orally, handed down from generation to generation and shared particularly when artists travelled to different places. Equally the copying and studying of other art works had shared and developed ideas. But some, particularly the 'secrets' of perspective and proportion had been available only to those within the guilds, who were the gate-keepers of this knowledge. The advent of the printed book however broke the hold and artistic practice became available to all.

Printed and published information and texts were often plaigerised and re-published, thus increasing the spread of ideas and information.

The liberal and practical arts

Writings on art during this time were at the heart of a contest over whether or not painting, sculpture and architecture were crafts or whether they should be seen as one of the liberal arts, which traditionally had been the preserve of the upper classes.

Histories and ingenium, treatises and scientia

This section pursues the earlier mentioned contest to promote painting, sculpture and architecture to a liberal art. Two landmarks are 1) the publication by Fillipo Villani (1325-1405) De origine civitatis Florentiae et de eisudem famosis civibus or On the Origins of the City of Florence and its Famous Men around 1380 of famous Florentines which included painters amongst those who would be judged as belonging to the higher social status of liberal artists, and 2) Cennino Cennini in his 1390's book Il libro dell'arte, in which he argues that painting is comparable to poetry in its dealings with the imagination and fantasy.

2. Commemorating artists

A preamble to this section talks of the way in which texts commemorating artists whether thumbnail sketches or full autobiographies grew in number between 1420 and 1520. Often this period is regarded only through the writings of Vasari and his pre-eminence given to Michelangelo, but there were many other outstanding artists and records of them.

Florence c.1380-1480

This is a lengthy section which lists numerous writings and publications from Florence during this period. In common they all seem to concur on a history of sculpture and painting that regards the ancients as a pinnacle and commencing with Giotto the artists in their own city had recaptured the realism and glory of the ancients and had brought honour on both themselves, the culture and the status of their city.

Wider views of the prowess of Italian and Netherlandish artists c.1450-1506

This section covers writings from across the Italian penninsular which replicate many of the ideas that Giotto and artists of the time had 'called back painting from the infernal regions' (p.263) Those writers cover artists from across Italy the Netherlands and even Greece.

French views 1503-1521: Mechelen and Toul

A review of French writings from the period. Once again honouring either directly or indirectly (included in works dedicated to various rulers) artists from across Europe including Leonardo, Michelangelo, Durer, Van der Weyden, Jan van Eyck.

Views from German speakers 1505-1532

All the writings considered are from German scholars written in Latin. By far and away the most important artist written of is Durer, who is compared time and again to the ancient artists and compared to Giotto in bringing back the ancient skills. The earliest lengthy personal tribute to have been printed in the Western European tradition was that by Camerarius of Albrecht Durer, who sees Durer not only as an artist, but as a theorist who established universal rules for proportion etc. In this way he saw him as more than passing on his learning, but rather as disseminating his ideas very widely. Mention is also made in this section of Lucas Cranach the Elder (1472-1553)

Italian views 1510-1530

This section reports on a number of developments. The guide books of Francesco Albertini of Florence and Rome, which as well as, telling of the ancient wonders also included contemporary and more recent works of art. In this period Giovio sought to establish a museum displaying portraits and information on artists and his early writings led him to encourage Vasari to produce the Lives. Two means of reviewing contemporary and modern artists emerged, one in which the writer sought to identify artists as the best and then working down, but others that recognized many artists as having different abilities. Giovio also wrote exclusively of Leonardo praising his ideas and his inventiveness over his work both finished and unfinished.

3. Treatises (writings on theory and practices)

An overview which tells us that treatises were produced both 'top down' from the intellectual elite and 'bottom up' from aspiring artists. Their value to patrons and collectors and to artists depended upon their language as this could give them either a wide audience or a very select one.

Treatises in one language

This section reviews a number of treatises two of which were not printed and widely distributed. Ghiberti's manuscript called Commentaries part three of which deals with the sciences of perspective, anatomy and proportion, and Leonardo's drafts for his treatises.

More widely available were works by Cennino and importantly Alberti who as well as being a painter, sculptor and architect, was a scholar. His important work included commentary on and a modernisation of Vitruvius' De Architectura.

Latin and vernacular treatises - manuscripts

A review of a number of manuscripts by writers such as Baptista Alberti, Filarete, Piero della Francesco and how copies were made and dedicated to specific men or rulers, sometimes in the hope that ideas would be supported by them. This section deals almost exclusively with Italian artists.

Latin and vernacular treatises - printed treatises

Against the almost exclusive audience of manuscripts, the printed treatises of the likes of Albrecht Durer had a wide circulation and became text books for teaching perspective and proportion. These were also translated and reproduced in different languages. Durer also acknowledged the aesthetic of diversity stating that beauty came in different ways for different people.

Conclusion

In conclusion, Catherine King poses the questions as to who valued treatises and what influence did they have upon patrons, scholars and artists. She suggests that they had some influence and did effect some changes, but that it is difficult to fully evalute these.

Week 6 - Making Renaissance Art - Chapter 6 - The Printed Picture in the Renaissance

Introduction

In this brief introduction by Kim Woods she states how the use of prints ranged across wide areas of society and uses from decorative ceiling paper to valued collectors items. She mentions how books were printed from single page blocks prior to the introduction of moveable print. The chapter will focus on the emergence of what were later called 'fine art prints'.

1. A practical comparison

As this title suggests this is a discussion of two versions of Albrecht Durer's The Angel Appearing to Joachim Plate 6.2 p.212 and Plate 6.3 p.213 which was engraved by Marcantonio Raimondi and highlights differences between woodcuts and intaglio print which is an engraved or etched copper metal plate.

2. Authorising a division of labour

Again a self-explanatory title in which there is an exploration of the relationship between the artist or designer and the craftsman who actually cut the woodblock and worked on the metal plate. There is also some discussion of the monetary rewards of the individuals, and even the variations in their status.

3. Early woodcuts and the emergence of intaglio printing

Early examples of engravings and woodcuts and their development. Also, the influence that these had on the later production of German sculpture. The engravings reflect the forms in Netherlandish painting.

4. The engraving as independent work of art

Again as indicated by the title this section considers the work of a number of engravers and artists and how prints were producrd as works of art in their own right. There is particular mention of the cross fertilization between painting, sculpture and print making. Discussion also takes place in relation to the emergence of entreprenurial activities in the production of these fine art prints.

5. Paper, printing and publication

Self-explanatory with the development of paper production came a major upturn in the printing of books, which in turn called for further improvements and increase in paper production. The increase in books called for an increase in illustrations, and alongside these major publishing enterprises there flourished, for a similar intellectual audience a developing market for independent prints as works of art.

6. Distribution and collection

This section deals with the rise in the status of the print as it became a collectible item and regarded as an item of value even though multiple copies could be made. It also draws attention to the manner in which prints became widely circulated primarily amongst professional artists and workshops. How engraving offered significant addition to the graphic patterns and models used by artists and workshops. Effects of this are demonstrable in works that show the copying of the whole or parts of other works e.g. Plate 6.27 p.240 shows copying from Plate 6.28 p.241 together with figures taken from Michelangelo's cartoon. Also how they began to bridge the social divide so that works were no longer the preserve of an elite few.

7. Invention and reproduction

This section focuses on the activities of Marcantonio Raimondi and his relationship with Durer and his collaboration with Raphael which establish him as the first professional engraver.

N.B. Useful discussion of this chapter in the Study Guide.

Week 5 - Chapter 5 - Making Renaissance Altarpieces

Introduction

'in a picture they who know no letters may yet read' (p.175)

Diana Norman sets out in this chapter, how she will consider altarpieces from both Italy and Northern Europe, how they were made, and the purposes that they fulfilled.

1. Custom and practice: Sassetta's Madonna della Neve altarpiece

This section explores the influences upon the artist of contemporary and past artists and his awareness of the position the altarpiece would occupy within Siena Cathedral. Sassetta's use of perspective and design makes this particular altarpiece 'an important milestone in the history of the Renaissance altarpiece' (p.188)

2. The triumph of the oil technique: Jan van Eyck and the Ghent altarpiece

An excellent description of the Ghent altarpiece as Diana Norman contrasts the work with that of Sassetta, both in terms of subject matter, and the manner in which the two are painted. The Sienese work in tempera and the Ghent in oils. The point is made that the Ghent altarpiece portrays a complex set of theological beliefs that were most likely to have been suggested by the Prior of the church, but that it was the artists through their skill and innovation who transformed them into the visual experience.

3. The North-South Divide: two triptychs

The two triptychs, one by Hans Memling painted for John Donne, is a portable altarpiece that can be closed and probably moved with the family from place to place. The other is much larger by Giovanni Bellini and is still in its intended situation in the family chapel in Venice. Both have figures that are realistic and set in an architectural space. This section compares and contrasts these two altarpieces, their methods of painting and their intended uses.

4. The development of the Renaissance altarpiece

Whilst pointing out that altarpieces in the Renaissance allowed artists greater opportunity to produce work reflecting realism, and the antique greco-roman, a wide variety of styles continued to be produced. The single picture surrounded by classical interiors although becoming popular was not exclusive, and triptychs and polyptychs continued to be made. The choice of style was very much dictated by patrons, local artistic tradition and the availability of materials.

Conclusion

In this essay the writer has suggested that the Renaissance saw a balance between the traditional role of the altarpiece as a religious artefact and a vehicle for artistic prowess.

Week 4 - Making Renaissance Art - Chapter 4 - Architecture: theory and practice

Introduction

Kim Woods writes that Tim Benton in this chapter is going to challenge the concept that Renaissance architecture was based on the classical theories from Vitruvius and that it was in fact a classical version of traditional medieval practices.

1. Vitruvius and the Renaissance

An introduction to the ten books on architecture written in the first century BCE by Vitruvius and the way in which artists and scholars in the 15thC sought to illustrate how architectural proportions related to the human form (Vitruvius man)in order to create aesthetically pleasing buildings. Mention is also made of the examination and investigation of antique buildings.

2. Medieval theory and practice.

This section gives a mathematically and geometrically detailed review of the gothic theories of architecture ad triangulum and quadrature (rotating squares). The example of Milan cathedral is used to illustrate the tension between gothic architects from the North of Europe working with these practices and the local Lombard masons who preferred the more squat design of Italian churches.

3. The Tuscan Romanesque and the Renaissance

Filippo Brunelleschi

A lengthy section examining work by Brunelleschi which concludes that although he is often seen as the leading Renaissance architect his innovation was based on his own mathematical and geometrical calculations and the work of Romanesqe and Tuscan architects (e.g.such as in the Baptistry in Florence) rather than based on the observation of antique architecture and the writings of Vitruvius.

This section concludes with a brief review of the Pope's summer residence in Pienza and the Palazzo Rucellai. Two similar buildings which use pilasters on the facade reflecting the antique use of columns. The whole chapter concludes that although there was scholarly research into the principles of antique architecture during the 15thC that many habits of thought continued from the medieval period.

The work of masons and architects demonstrates Gothic and Renaissance principles being selectively used and adapted to the needs of a particular client or audience.

Welch - Chapter 6 - Sites of Devotion

An insightful chapter providing a glimpse of religious sites and their uses, their customs and the expected manner of behaviour during the 15th and 16th Century. This is designed to give some idea of the true context in which many works are originally displayed, and their use in the religious life and calendar which dominated contemporary life in general. Specific sections deal with, monasteries, nunneries, cathedrals, and churches, the manner in which the church building was divided, and finally how artworks and decorations were designed to be seen in sequence within the building and within the act of worship.

Week 3 - Making Renaissance Art - Chapter 3 - The illusion of life in fifteenth-century sculpture

Introduction

This introduction by Kim Woods states this chapter has a duel focus 'to provide a basic grasp of the very wide range of materials and techniques essential for an understanding of the making of Renaissance sculpture' and 'to explore the ideal of faithfulness to nature'.

1. The Florence Baptistry doors

A review of the two competition pieces submitted by Ghiberti and Brunelleschi giving an insight into bronze casting techniques.

2. The Goldene Rossl

Standing 62cm high this is an outstanding work by an unknown Northern European goldsmith and is presented as evidence of the quality of work produced in the North by goldsmiths that may have had an influence on Ghiberti and his 'lyrical verisimilitude'. The Goldene Rossl Pl.3.5 p.108 was a gift to Charles VI of France by his wife in 1405. It is a jewel encrusted and enamelled gold and silver portrayal of the Virgin and Child, receiving Charles VI and his knight on an upper level, whilst below waits a horse and groom. Exquisite!

3. Champmol

Champnol is near Dijon and is the site of the tomb of Philip the Bold 1384-1410. The tomb is a further example of naturalistic opulence and stonework in alabaster and black marble, and was the first ever created in this style with the three dimensional architectural arcade extending around all four sides, amongst which are the life like figures of mourners. Champmol was also the site of a gigantic 10 metre high stone cemetry cross Well of Moses surrounded and supported by the figures of six prophets and six mourning angels. Again their decoration reflecting the high status of the patron and carved with great naturalism.

4. Orsanmichele

This multi-purpose building was decorated on the outside with statues by the Florence Guilds. The chapter looks at two works Nano di Banco's Four Crowned Saints Pl.3.8,p.114 and Donatello's Saint George Pl.3.9,p.115 both in marble. Mention is made of how the Florence statues reflect a far more classical style in their naturalistic approach as opposed to the Northern European style of the previous chapter.

5. Relief sculpture in Florence

This section compares the work of Donatello working in marble and sandstone, Pl.3.10 p.116 Christ Giving the Keys to Saint Peter, Pl.3.11,p.118 Cavalcanti Annunciation and Pl.2.5 p.68 St. George and the Dragon and the different techniques used to create naturalistic figures and depth. Comparison is made of the Cantoria's in Florence cathedral produced by Luca della Robbia Pl.3.12,p.119 and Donatello Pl.3.13,p.119 and the different finishes achieved on the marble which create illusionistic effects. Finally Ghiberti's Baptistry doors cast in fire-guilded bronze Pl.3.14,p.120, and the manner in which figures are made in different reliefs alongside architecture to create a sense of depth.

6. Materials and techniques in the Netherlands

Altarpieces are the consideration of this narrative! and several examples are considered from the various centres of production in Brussels and Antwerp. The point is made that during the 1400's the wooden carvings changed to become more three dimensional and lifelike. Pl.3.16, p.123 Master of Hakendover Crucifixion and Pl.3.17,p.124. Unknown Brussel's carver, de Villa altarpiece. Special consideration is given to an altarpiece carved by Adriaen van Wesel, Angel Musicians now mostly destroyed but a fragment is shown in Pl.3.18,p.125.

Also discussed are the types of wood stipulated to be used by the controlling guilds in Antwerp and Brussels and the way in which the guilds inspected final work to give a seal of approval. Carved pieces were polychromed (painted) to add to the effect of naturalism by adding colour, and in some instances, appliquéd wax to represent fabric was added prior to painting.

7. Materials and techniques in Italy

This compares the Italian work against those in the north, there was not such a tradition of wood carving as in the north but Donatello worked in wood on occasions producing works such as Mary Magdelene Pl.3.20,p.127 and John the Baptist displayed in Venice. Sienese sculptors made more use of wood as marble was not so readily available see pl.3.19,p.126 Jacopa della Quercia The Annunciation. (Renaissance Siena Art for a City exhibition at NG Neroccio di Bartolomeo de' Landi (1447-1500) Saint Catherine of Siena, polychromed wood, p.102 of catalogue, an exquisite example).

Donatello also worked in glazed terracotta but another famous artist working in this medium was Lucca della Robbia Pl.3.21 p.128 The Resurrection. Polychrome terracotta however was used by Niccolo dell'Arca as in Pl.3.22 p.128 Lamentation over the Dead Christ. There were limitations with the glazed terracotta in producing natural figures but the polychromed terracotta seemed to use the paintwork to a greater effect in achieving naturalism.

8. Sculpture produced in multiple versions

Multiple versions of artworks particularly madonnas were produced in a number of ways. Terracota images could be produced in moulds and then gilded and then polychromed such as Pl.13.23, p.129 by Lucca della Robbia Bliss Madonna (Virgin and Child in a Niche). Ghiberti also produced moulds for devotional pieces suitable for homes or the outside of homes. Bronze also made effective moulds and Donatello also seems to have produced multiple works from bronze moulds.

9. Tombs and Portraits

An investigation of how sculptors started to create portrait style reproductions of real people. A number of tomb figures are considered in which the actual face continues to be somewhat idealized but the items such as armour, clothes etc. have been copied from real items associated with the figure. The earliest recognized sculpture portrait appears to be of Piero de Medici Pl.3.31, p.137 Mino de Fiesole, portrait bust of Piero de Medici, Lord of Florence, produced in 1453.

Conculsion

The chapter has considered how 15thC sculptors strove to create the illusion of life through various mediums. That illusion however, was often not a copy of the real but an idealised fantasy.