Chapter 7 - Making Renaissance Art - Week 7 - Making histories, publishing theories

Introduction
Kim Woods introduces us to the proliferation of literature on art, painting, architecture etc. that came about during the years of the Renaissance. She highlights the most famous, Vasari's Lives, but points out that in both North and South Europe there were many other writings and treatises. There seems to be a question as to how much influence these actually had on workshop training

during this time, which is one of the issues to be discussed in this chapter.

Catherine King writes: were the texts to be considered initiated by patrons and scholars or by artists themselves? Did they actually change the practice and appearance of art? or 'the way that artists saw themselves and were seen in professional, social and intellectual terms' (Bk1, p.251)

1. The partnership between writing histories and composing treatises

Education and communication of ideas

Generally artists were not educated to a level that enabled them to understand Latin but there were exceptions. Some had collections of books and some had none.

Communicating orally, in visual images and in writing

Ideas and developments in art had always been passed on orally, handed down from generation to generation and shared particularly when artists travelled to different places. Equally the copying and studying of other art works had shared and developed ideas. But some, particularly the 'secrets' of perspective and proportion had been available only to those within the guilds, who were the gate-keepers of this knowledge. The advent of the printed book however broke the hold and artistic practice became available to all.

Printed and published information and texts were often plaigerised and re-published, thus increasing the spread of ideas and information.

The liberal and practical arts

Writings on art during this time were at the heart of a contest over whether or not painting, sculpture and architecture were crafts or whether they should be seen as one of the liberal arts, which traditionally had been the preserve of the upper classes.

Histories and ingenium, treatises and scientia

This section pursues the earlier mentioned contest to promote painting, sculpture and architecture to a liberal art. Two landmarks are 1) the publication by Fillipo Villani (1325-1405) De origine civitatis Florentiae et de eisudem famosis civibus or On the Origins of the City of Florence and its Famous Men around 1380 of famous Florentines which included painters amongst those who would be judged as belonging to the higher social status of liberal artists, and 2) Cennino Cennini in his 1390's book Il libro dell'arte, in which he argues that painting is comparable to poetry in its dealings with the imagination and fantasy.

2. Commemorating artists

A preamble to this section talks of the way in which texts commemorating artists whether thumbnail sketches or full autobiographies grew in number between 1420 and 1520. Often this period is regarded only through the writings of Vasari and his pre-eminence given to Michelangelo, but there were many other outstanding artists and records of them.

Florence c.1380-1480

This is a lengthy section which lists numerous writings and publications from Florence during this period. In common they all seem to concur on a history of sculpture and painting that regards the ancients as a pinnacle and commencing with Giotto the artists in their own city had recaptured the realism and glory of the ancients and had brought honour on both themselves, the culture and the status of their city.

Wider views of the prowess of Italian and Netherlandish artists c.1450-1506

This section covers writings from across the Italian penninsular which replicate many of the ideas that Giotto and artists of the time had 'called back painting from the infernal regions' (p.263) Those writers cover artists from across Italy the Netherlands and even Greece.

French views 1503-1521: Mechelen and Toul

A review of French writings from the period. Once again honouring either directly or indirectly (included in works dedicated to various rulers) artists from across Europe including Leonardo, Michelangelo, Durer, Van der Weyden, Jan van Eyck.

Views from German speakers 1505-1532

All the writings considered are from German scholars written in Latin. By far and away the most important artist written of is Durer, who is compared time and again to the ancient artists and compared to Giotto in bringing back the ancient skills. The earliest lengthy personal tribute to have been printed in the Western European tradition was that by Camerarius of Albrecht Durer, who sees Durer not only as an artist, but as a theorist who established universal rules for proportion etc. In this way he saw him as more than passing on his learning, but rather as disseminating his ideas very widely. Mention is also made in this section of Lucas Cranach the Elder (1472-1553)

Italian views 1510-1530

This section reports on a number of developments. The guide books of Francesco Albertini of Florence and Rome, which as well as, telling of the ancient wonders also included contemporary and more recent works of art. In this period Giovio sought to establish a museum displaying portraits and information on artists and his early writings led him to encourage Vasari to produce the Lives. Two means of reviewing contemporary and modern artists emerged, one in which the writer sought to identify artists as the best and then working down, but others that recognized many artists as having different abilities. Giovio also wrote exclusively of Leonardo praising his ideas and his inventiveness over his work both finished and unfinished.

3. Treatises (writings on theory and practices)

An overview which tells us that treatises were produced both 'top down' from the intellectual elite and 'bottom up' from aspiring artists. Their value to patrons and collectors and to artists depended upon their language as this could give them either a wide audience or a very select one.

Treatises in one language

This section reviews a number of treatises two of which were not printed and widely distributed. Ghiberti's manuscript called Commentaries part three of which deals with the sciences of perspective, anatomy and proportion, and Leonardo's drafts for his treatises.

More widely available were works by Cennino and importantly Alberti who as well as being a painter, sculptor and architect, was a scholar. His important work included commentary on and a modernisation of Vitruvius' De Architectura.

Latin and vernacular treatises - manuscripts

A review of a number of manuscripts by writers such as Baptista Alberti, Filarete, Piero della Francesco and how copies were made and dedicated to specific men or rulers, sometimes in the hope that ideas would be supported by them. This section deals almost exclusively with Italian artists.

Latin and vernacular treatises - printed treatises

Against the almost exclusive audience of manuscripts, the printed treatises of the likes of Albrecht Durer had a wide circulation and became text books for teaching perspective and proportion. These were also translated and reproduced in different languages. Durer also acknowledged the aesthetic of diversity stating that beauty came in different ways for different people.

Conclusion

In conclusion, Catherine King poses the questions as to who valued treatises and what influence did they have upon patrons, scholars and artists. She suggests that they had some influence and did effect some changes, but that it is difficult to fully evalute these.

Week 6 - Making Renaissance Art - Chapter 6 - The Printed Picture in the Renaissance

Introduction

In this brief introduction by Kim Woods she states how the use of prints ranged across wide areas of society and uses from decorative ceiling paper to valued collectors items. She mentions how books were printed from single page blocks prior to the introduction of moveable print. The chapter will focus on the emergence of what were later called 'fine art prints'.

1. A practical comparison

As this title suggests this is a discussion of two versions of Albrecht Durer's The Angel Appearing to Joachim Plate 6.2 p.212 and Plate 6.3 p.213 which was engraved by Marcantonio Raimondi and highlights differences between woodcuts and intaglio print which is an engraved or etched copper metal plate.

2. Authorising a division of labour

Again a self-explanatory title in which there is an exploration of the relationship between the artist or designer and the craftsman who actually cut the woodblock and worked on the metal plate. There is also some discussion of the monetary rewards of the individuals, and even the variations in their status.

3. Early woodcuts and the emergence of intaglio printing

Early examples of engravings and woodcuts and their development. Also, the influence that these had on the later production of German sculpture. The engravings reflect the forms in Netherlandish painting.

4. The engraving as independent work of art

Again as indicated by the title this section considers the work of a number of engravers and artists and how prints were producrd as works of art in their own right. There is particular mention of the cross fertilization between painting, sculpture and print making. Discussion also takes place in relation to the emergence of entreprenurial activities in the production of these fine art prints.

5. Paper, printing and publication

Self-explanatory with the development of paper production came a major upturn in the printing of books, which in turn called for further improvements and increase in paper production. The increase in books called for an increase in illustrations, and alongside these major publishing enterprises there flourished, for a similar intellectual audience a developing market for independent prints as works of art.

6. Distribution and collection

This section deals with the rise in the status of the print as it became a collectible item and regarded as an item of value even though multiple copies could be made. It also draws attention to the manner in which prints became widely circulated primarily amongst professional artists and workshops. How engraving offered significant addition to the graphic patterns and models used by artists and workshops. Effects of this are demonstrable in works that show the copying of the whole or parts of other works e.g. Plate 6.27 p.240 shows copying from Plate 6.28 p.241 together with figures taken from Michelangelo's cartoon. Also how they began to bridge the social divide so that works were no longer the preserve of an elite few.

7. Invention and reproduction

This section focuses on the activities of Marcantonio Raimondi and his relationship with Durer and his collaboration with Raphael which establish him as the first professional engraver.

N.B. Useful discussion of this chapter in the Study Guide.

Week 5 - Chapter 5 - Making Renaissance Altarpieces

Introduction

'in a picture they who know no letters may yet read' (p.175)

Diana Norman sets out in this chapter, how she will consider altarpieces from both Italy and Northern Europe, how they were made, and the purposes that they fulfilled.

1. Custom and practice: Sassetta's Madonna della Neve altarpiece

This section explores the influences upon the artist of contemporary and past artists and his awareness of the position the altarpiece would occupy within Siena Cathedral. Sassetta's use of perspective and design makes this particular altarpiece 'an important milestone in the history of the Renaissance altarpiece' (p.188)

2. The triumph of the oil technique: Jan van Eyck and the Ghent altarpiece

An excellent description of the Ghent altarpiece as Diana Norman contrasts the work with that of Sassetta, both in terms of subject matter, and the manner in which the two are painted. The Sienese work in tempera and the Ghent in oils. The point is made that the Ghent altarpiece portrays a complex set of theological beliefs that were most likely to have been suggested by the Prior of the church, but that it was the artists through their skill and innovation who transformed them into the visual experience.

3. The North-South Divide: two triptychs

The two triptychs, one by Hans Memling painted for John Donne, is a portable altarpiece that can be closed and probably moved with the family from place to place. The other is much larger by Giovanni Bellini and is still in its intended situation in the family chapel in Venice. Both have figures that are realistic and set in an architectural space. This section compares and contrasts these two altarpieces, their methods of painting and their intended uses.

4. The development of the Renaissance altarpiece

Whilst pointing out that altarpieces in the Renaissance allowed artists greater opportunity to produce work reflecting realism, and the antique greco-roman, a wide variety of styles continued to be produced. The single picture surrounded by classical interiors although becoming popular was not exclusive, and triptychs and polyptychs continued to be made. The choice of style was very much dictated by patrons, local artistic tradition and the availability of materials.

Conclusion

In this essay the writer has suggested that the Renaissance saw a balance between the traditional role of the altarpiece as a religious artefact and a vehicle for artistic prowess.

Week 4 - Making Renaissance Art - Chapter 4 - Architecture: theory and practice

Introduction

Kim Woods writes that Tim Benton in this chapter is going to challenge the concept that Renaissance architecture was based on the classical theories from Vitruvius and that it was in fact a classical version of traditional medieval practices.

1. Vitruvius and the Renaissance

An introduction to the ten books on architecture written in the first century BCE by Vitruvius and the way in which artists and scholars in the 15thC sought to illustrate how architectural proportions related to the human form (Vitruvius man)in order to create aesthetically pleasing buildings. Mention is also made of the examination and investigation of antique buildings.

2. Medieval theory and practice.

This section gives a mathematically and geometrically detailed review of the gothic theories of architecture ad triangulum and quadrature (rotating squares). The example of Milan cathedral is used to illustrate the tension between gothic architects from the North of Europe working with these practices and the local Lombard masons who preferred the more squat design of Italian churches.

3. The Tuscan Romanesque and the Renaissance

Filippo Brunelleschi

A lengthy section examining work by Brunelleschi which concludes that although he is often seen as the leading Renaissance architect his innovation was based on his own mathematical and geometrical calculations and the work of Romanesqe and Tuscan architects (e.g.such as in the Baptistry in Florence) rather than based on the observation of antique architecture and the writings of Vitruvius.

This section concludes with a brief review of the Pope's summer residence in Pienza and the Palazzo Rucellai. Two similar buildings which use pilasters on the facade reflecting the antique use of columns. The whole chapter concludes that although there was scholarly research into the principles of antique architecture during the 15thC that many habits of thought continued from the medieval period.

The work of masons and architects demonstrates Gothic and Renaissance principles being selectively used and adapted to the needs of a particular client or audience.

Welch - Chapter 6 - Sites of Devotion

An insightful chapter providing a glimpse of religious sites and their uses, their customs and the expected manner of behaviour during the 15th and 16th Century. This is designed to give some idea of the true context in which many works are originally displayed, and their use in the religious life and calendar which dominated contemporary life in general. Specific sections deal with, monasteries, nunneries, cathedrals, and churches, the manner in which the church building was divided, and finally how artworks and decorations were designed to be seen in sequence within the building and within the act of worship.